The United States and the European Union agreed on a framework trade deal to end months of uncertainty for industries and consumers.

The EU ’s other big concession was cutting its own tariffs on American cars and other industrial goods to zero, as well as giving some farm and fishery products better access to the European market. The liberalisation affects about a quarter of America’s exports to the EU, including cars and footwear; the rest already enter tariff-free.

Some European politicians are dismayed that the European Union did not drive a harder bargain, but facing the threat of a damaging trade war, officials say they had little choice.